Feature

Marine Reservations

Debate over marine reserves runs the gamut from the
protection of fish species to the social psychology of the human communities involved.

Jeannie Wolfenden

The oceans of the world represent the dominant feature of our planet, covering more than two-thirds of its surface and playing a key role in hydrological cycles, climate and weather. The oceans also provide economic growth, shipping lanes, minerals and energy. In recent years, improvements in shipping and fishing technology have resulted in the seas becoming increasingly exploited. Less than one percent of the world's sea and seabed is currently within some form of protection, providing little or no chance of empirical comparison between present over-use and a pristine marine environment.

New Zealand has an extensive coastline approximately 15,000 kilometres in length, discounting the numerous inlets and bays which punctuate its shorelines. Surprisingly, this distance equates with the contiguous coastline of the United States. For many years this valuable resource has brought economic rewards to New Zealand but recently it has become apparent that the sea is not a limitless asset.

New Zealand has in excess of 2,650,000 hectares of land surface as either national park or public reserve primarily devoted to nature conservation. In contrast, only 500 hectares of New Zealand's mainland coastline at Goat Island, Leigh, was given similar status in 1975, subsequent to the passing of the Marine Reserves Act. This protected area exists in a six-kilometre by 0.8-kilometre strip between Cape Rodney and Okakari Point in the outer Hauraki Gulf. It was not until 1992 that New Zealand's second mainland marine reserve was created at Cathedral Cove on the Coromandel Peninsula.

A number of factors have contributed to the depletion of our coastal resources. There is great debate as to where the responsibility for conservation lies and who should be entitled to the remaining resources. This is well illustrated in the debates between the commercial and recreational fishing communities. The primary cause for concern about the future of our coastal resources is the virtual non-existence of any form of conservation.

Commercial fishing quotas were designed to protect individual species but this conservation measure falls short of preserving the integrity of a complex ecosystem. Advocates for reserves argue that the beauty and variety of the coastal areas, plus the range of activities they facilitate must be maintained. Reserves provide recreational, educational and scientific opportunities, refuges and nurseries for marine life and protection of rare or endangered species and habitat.

Resource Management

With the instigation of the Resource Management Act in 1991, New Zealand led the world in sustainable management of the natural environment. This legislation combined many separate laws to create a simpler system for managing resources. It is the principle statute for the management of land, water, soil resource, the coast and air and for pollution control. The underlying principle is one of sustainable development, defined as the management of resources in a way or at a rate which enables people and communities to provide for their well being while still maintaining the potential resources to meet the reasonable foreseeable needs of future generations.

The Act established a new coastal management regime based on a partnership between the Crown and the community through regional and local authorities. In the past, inappropriate management has diminished the character of parts of the coast. The coastal marine area -- defined as the area below mean high water springs -- is generally managed by the relevant regional council. However, where there is a matter of national importance under consideration, such as the proposal for a marine reserve, designation of the area is declined or approved by the Minister of Conservation rather than the regional council.

Central to the problem of coastal administration is the 1994 New Zealand Coastal Policy Plan. The policy has important legal implications, and Regional Councils are presently formulating policies, objectives and rules under the Resource Management Act to conform with the plan.

Marine Protection

Marine reserves are a quintessential resource management issue. The Marine Reserves Act (1971) represented the first direct attempt to protect the marine environment. Present legislation requires the Department of Conservation to administer marine reserves in accordance with the Act. The Act confers on marine reserves a status similar to that of terrestrial national parks. Designated areas are required to be of distinctive or unique quality ensuring that preservation is in the national interest. The Act prohibits disturbance of the marine and coastal environment, including the taking of any marine life except for scientific purposes. The discharge of any substance damaging to the marine environment is prohibited. Marine farming is not permitted in a marine reserve. The public have rights of access for marine recreational activities, subject to management restraints.

At present, there are 11 marine reserves:

• Leigh, north of Auckland (1977)
• the Poor Knights Islands (1980)
• the Kermadec Islands (1990)
• Kapiti Island (1991)
• Mayor Island (1993)
• Cathedral Cove (1992)
• Te Awatu Channel (The Gut) (1993)
• Piopiotahi, Milford Sound (1993)
• Tonga Island, Abel Tasman National Park (1993)
• Long Island, Kokomohua (1993)
• Westhaven (Te Tai Tapu) (1994)

There are presently three formal marine reserve proposals awaiting a decision by the Minister for Conservation, and DOC is also investigating about 21 marine reserve applications.

Marine parks located at Mimiwhangata and Tawharanui provide partial protection of the marine ecosystem, but fishing for unprotected species has actually increased in these areas. The extraction of any species causes disruption to natural marine habitats. To secure a pristine marine environment a marine reserve must prohibit the removal of any flora or fauna within the boundaries.

Environmental and
Social Impacts

Proposals for the establishment of additional marine reserves are at the investigation stage. With the consequences that would follow from proceeding with the designation of protected areas, implications for local communities need to be considered. Social impact assessment (SIA) is an expansion of the development of environmental impact assessment (EIA) which emerged in the early 1970s.

Technocratic approaches led to unfortunate social, economic and environmental legacies which stressed the need to identify and assess the impacts of developmental planning. An example of the negative effects of technocracy can be found in a study carried out in Hahei last year, following the declaration of the marine reserve there.

The community was divided by the marine reserve proposal into those actively supporting it and those opposing it. One uniting factor in the community was their apparent distrust and dislike of government officials who were the prime movers of the reserve. Residents felt strongly about having no personal involvement in the decision-making process and recommended that social and environmental impacts be carried out in proposed reserve areas.

Misconceptions regarding social impact assessments include the belief that social impacts are self-evident and analysis adds unwarranted costs to the project in time and money. Research has shown that SIAs provide information about the level of public support and the dimensions of public knowledge relevant to the project and also assist managers and decision-makers to establish goals or objectives.

Inter-generational interviews to look at differences in ideologies and values relating to the marine environment are being carried out by environmental psychologists at Auckland University. A socio-drama game is being devised to give high school students a feeling for decision-making; experiential learning games increase the level of knowledge about the marine environment while emphasising the effect of present decision on the future of marine ecosystems.

Whilst acknowledging the subjective dimensions of environmental protection, SIAs investigate the cultural and community issues raised by proposals for marine reserves. If protection of the coastline and marine ecosystems are to be afforded importance and recognition, it follows that the study of social impacts should be an integral part of the process.

Jeannie Wolfenden is undertaking PhD research at Auckland University in experiential learning relating to marine conservation.

Jeannie Wolfenden is undertaking PhD research at Auckland University in experiential learning relating to marine conservation.