Feature

Loving Nature To Death

Tourists can pose a real threat to the "clean, green" environment they come to see, but it doesn't have to be that way.

By Jean Holmes

Increasing interest in ecotourism -- exploring the natural environment -- has led to charges that tourists are "raping" the environment, threatening the very basis of the industry. Proponents counter with allegations that environmentalists are promoting elitist lock-ups to protect their favourite places.

Despite this apparent conflict, there is the chance for a symbiotic relationship, where tourism and conservation values can benefit from each other. Conservation gains by the increased understanding and appreciation of the environment produced through on-site exposure and the subsequent political support that satisfied visitors can generate. Recreation and tourism interests benefit because of the increased access to natural environments valued highly by people.

Human interaction with wildlife has often entailed the death or removal of animals from their natural habitat, such as in hunting or fishing. Large state-controlled bureaucracies have evolved in many nations to "manage" such consumptive uses with licenses. Over the past two decades, there has been considerable growth in the non-consumptive use of wildlife, such as photography safaris and whale watching. This has expanded to the point where such pursuits and their related economic, and potentially ecological,3 impacts, are more significant than traditional wildlife pursuits.

The relationship between humans and focal species or species groups involves cultural, religious, national, regional and individual variations. Nevertheless there are some similarities in the way in which certain species are perceived. Attitudes towards many species were once one-dimensional, such as that encountered by predators -- shoot it -- or food sources -- eat it -- but these attitudes are now changing to involve a much broader range of interpretation. Such changes are often reflected in high-profile debates such as the harp seal hunt off Newfoundland, predator control programmes such as the wolf kill in British Columbia, and the controversy over keeping species such as dolphins and whales in aquariums.

Ecotourism Expansion

Ecotourism is synonymous with the non-consumptive uses of wildlife such as bush walks, scenic flights and wildlife excursions that bring the public close to nature. It's a business which is rapidly expanding, providing foreign exchange and economic reward for the preservation of natural systems and wildlife.

In Rwanda, thousands of tourists are attracted every year from all over the world to catch a glimpse of the mountain gorillas in the Parc National des Volcans, a reserve constructed to protect the gorillas more than 60 years ago. These animals are now literally saving the park. Despite early concerns that the gorillas might be disrupted by this tourist venture, causing reduced reproduction or sidetracking efforts to control poaching, this has thus far not been found to be the case. Reproduction is highest amongst habituated gorillas, and the expansion of anti-poaching patrols has been paid for by gate proceeds.

Successful management has been used to ensure minimal effects on the gorilla troops. Each troop is visited only once daily, the age and number of tourists is restricted, each tourist is coached on body language, and it is stressed that contact with the gorillas is to be minimised.

Tourism poses some threats, but the alternatives are clear. Without tourism there would be increased loss of habitat and continued poaching, resulting in the loss of the gorillas. The success of this project has spurred efforts throughout the world to save other threatened species by opening up their habitat -- for a fee -- to spectators.

Lemur-watching tours began recently in Madagascar, and in Brazil, the World Wildlife Fund along with Brazilian organisations have been taking tour groups to visit the endangered muriqui, South America's largest monkey. The success of these programmes depends heavily on management policies.

Ecotourism has been attracting numbers of people and generating growing economic benefits. A recent study by the World Conservation Union found that in Kenya, one lion is "worth" $27,000 and a single elephant herd $610,000 annually in tourism income. Alive, the animals produce more income than poachers receive for their various parts. Governments that were once apathetic about habitat and wildlife conservation now see that preserving these assets is important to their economic future.

Ecotourism in
New Zealand

Tourism has confirmed its place as a major export industry for New Zealand, contributing $3.3 billion (5% of the gross domestic product) and creating the equivalent of over 100,000 full-time jobs. The earning potential of tourism is yet to fulfilled, with expansion in many areas still possible and highly profitable.

The increased demands that these tourists place on our environment require new expertise and styles of management. Protection of our heritage, wilderness and conservation estate must be of paramount importance when assessing new development plans, and this must involve educating the tourist. Tourism and recreation in New Zealand depend almost exclusively on the natural environment, therefore it is essential that the resource is maintained.

Whakapapa ski field sits on the northwestern slopes of Mount Ruapehu, and provides evidence of how a fragile national park and a large-scale recreational operation can coexist. The park management plan contains tight constraints to ensure that park values are protected as much as possible; this is administered by Department of Conservation staff. The ski field operates within environmental constraints and believes that pursuing environmentally friendly policies is advantageous in New Zealand.

It has been claimed in many instances that our "clean, green" image results in a competitive advantage in the international tourist market. In tourism and recreation development there is no logic in destroying the very resources that the attract the visitors to the area in the first place.

Unfortunately, this is not always the practice. Ecotourism sometimes does threaten to destroy the resources on which it depends. Tour boats dump garbage in the waters of the Antarctic, photographers harass wildlife in national parks, hordes trample across fragile areas. This frenzied activity threatens the viability of natural systems, which suggests the possibility of loving nature to death.

Management Needed

New Zealand is a land of great contrast, with many and varied ecologies and unique flora and fauna which have evolved to fit these ecologies. By the virtue of its contrast, diversity and changeability, the landscape is difficult to manage, requiring adjustments to suit national, regional and local needs

The demands on the conservation estate have seen DoC develop and implement tourism and recreation management plans. The National Parks Act, 1980, states that the department shall manage the national parks in such a manner as to secure to the public the fuller, proper use and enjoyment of the parks consistent with the preservation and well-being of their native plants and animals. The Conservation Act, 1990, requires the department to foster the use of natural and historical resources for recreation and to allow their use for tourism.

The type of tourism and recreation development needed to provide an economic alternative to activities such as mining and forestry will have significant impacts on the environment. Recreation and tourism can range across a broad spectrum, from preservation to destruction of the existing landscape. A small-scale nature trail may have little impact, whilst a marina, skifield or pleasure park may result in major landscape changes.

The adverse impact of tourism involves loss of habitat, disturbance of flora and fauna resulting in social, behavioural and reproductive problems, and possible destruction of the local environment. Many of these adverse effects can be minimised with more effective comprehensive management.

Emphasis on
Ecosystems

New Zealand tourism is often one-dimensional, with facilities built around a single species, such as the black stilt at Twizel and the albatross at Taiaroa Head. Ecologist Les Molloy believes that the emphasis should be placed on ecosystems as a whole rather than individual species -- for example the kaka should be viewed as a part of the beech forest ecosystem -- and he is at present working with DoC and recreation conservancies in the development of a national heritage interpretation plan.

Molloy believes that they have to analyse their conservancy characters and their audience, and consider the major conservation themes, analysing key sites, and prioritise those. He proposes a big pathway approach, providing interpretation along a heritage highway for the bulk of visitors which answers the needs without diminishing the overall wilderness.

Most outstanding natural sites can accommodate a limited number of visitors without detriment, and the provision of a few well-designed facilities will invariably add to convenience and enjoyment without loss of the benefits of the surrounding. But the situation changes, often dramatically, when the numbers of visitors to facilities increase beyond a certain threshold, decreasing the quality of the experience progressively. The facilities invade the site and take over from the surrounding scenery. Often this change is only recognised after the event. The excessive number of visitors physically damages the site itself. All these effects are magnified when vehicles are also involved.

To alleviate the pressure when a resource becomes overcrowded or exposed to incompatible uses, various procedures can be used to restrict, regulate or reduce its use:

• restricting access to control visitor flows, by limiting visitor numbers or parking
• limiting facilities by prohibiting the building of additional roads or accommodation, and by controlling the terms of licenses and leases
• zoning the various activities to separate quiet activities in contact with the most valuable and sensitive part of resource from those that are fast-moving and noisy
• develop alternative destinations, such as opening the Kepler Track in Fiordland to help relieve pressure on the Milford Track
• charging users as a control mechanism and cost recovery effort, through hut fees and entrance fees
• educating the groups using the facilities as to appropriate behaviour, and publicising alternatives
• actively manage the facilities with improvements which can channel activities and reduce the physical impact, such as developing signs or pathways.

Any or all of these procedures could be used to ensure that our "clean, green" heritage, and the economic benefits to be accrued from it, continues to remain healthy in the future.